April 2005

Thanks to the efforts of the program coordinator Greg Hoffmann the CSI membership program is a reality. Now you can become a CSI member and supporter. All our members will receive the CSI Report via e-mail and you will know you are supporting an organization dedicated to supporting the science that supports conservation.

The rocky shores of the outer Kenai Peninsula are the home of three Sugpiaq villages where the black chiton, Katharina tunicata, remains an important traditional subsistence food. Known locally as bidarki and ohuduck in Sugcestun, this benthic invertebrate is also a competitively dominant herbivore known to have dramatic impacts on the structure, dynamics, and diversity of surf swept rocky reef food webs. In this issue of the CSI Report you can read about the work CSI Fellow Anne Salomon is doing to evaluate the relative roles of natural factors and anthropogenic impacts in altering Bidarki density and size structure and intertidal community structure.

Last week a Discovery Channel film crew visited me to discuss a film they are producing for Shark Week. The film is currently called American Sharks, and the effort has allowed the film crew to visit shark researchers and enthusiasts around the country. I was interviewed on camera for three hours as we sat on a bluff overlooking Cook Inlet with icebergs moving past in the background. Who knows if any of the interview will be on the final production, but we talked about two of Alaska's interesting sharks species, salmon sharks and Pacific sleeper sharks.

The CSI Science Director, Tom Okey, and I have published in paper in Ecological Economics. The paper, Sufficient fuel taxes would enhance ecologies, economies, and communities, is available online. The paper explains that sufficient fuel tax in the USA, for example $2.00 per gallon (53 cents per liter) rather than the current US average of 43 cents per gallon (11 cents per liter) (federal and state taxes combined), would have numerous likely positive effects resulting simply from incentive effects. People would, for instance, drive less by eliminating frivolous trips; carpool more; purchase fuel-efficient vehicles; use bicycles for many trips; choose to walk; telecommute more; choose to live closer to their workplace; and use public transportation.

We propose that commercial and residential developments could be re-designed or converted to more bicycle, pedestrian, and commuter friendly configurations; severely degraded communities would be re-vitalized as emphasis shifts from automobiles to other modes of transportation; air quality would improve resulting in lower medical expenses, less crowding in clinics and hospitals, healthier people, and less need for severe pollution control measures; noise pollution would decrease considerably; oil spills would occur less frequently; the need for military expenditures would decrease; highways would become less crowded and need fewer repairs; automobiles would last longer; impacts of roads on sensitive wildlife would abate; freeway safety would increase and insurance rates would decrease, the USA could sign the Kyoto Protocol and meet its obligations; oil imports could be reduced as could oil-related conflicts; quality of life would greatly improve in general. Life on earth, including human society, is facing a severe `bottleneck' in the coming decades, as described by E.O. Wilson in his 2002 book `The Future of Life.' Our economies, ecologies, and communities will be far better prepared for this bottleneck if we do not delay in making bold changes.

The CSI Science Director, Tom Okey, is on a three-stage survey across the waters between Torres Strait and the eastern Arafura Sea. CSIRO, the National Oceans Office and Geoscience Australia have joined forces to describe the distribution of habitat types and their responses to different patterns of use. The findings will contribute to Australian government resource and conservation management processes and the regional marine plan for northern Torres Strait and the eastern Arafura Sea. Tom has been analyzing marine invertebrates, but he also noted some of avian species taking refuge on the research vessel from cyclone Willy. Tom reported, "a pied imperial pigeon hitched a ride with us today (3/20/05) across the Gulf of Carpentaria, and a rose-crowned fruit dove was on the bridge deck the other night. We have a feisty collared kingfisher in a box that we will release tomorrow morning at Weipa, and an Oriental plover has been standing on the forecastle all day. We regularly have visiting shearwaters, terns, boobies, and frigates." For more information go to: http://www.marine.csiro.au/research/voyages/0305/index.html.

Senator James Inhofe (R-Ok), who has vigorously questioned the existence of a global warming trend, dismissed scientific findings that support the trend and called global warming the "greatest hoax ever perpetrated on the American people," has been named as the March winner of the Big Drip Award. The award, named after that nagging sound a glacier makes when it's melting, is handed out monthly by The Aujaqsuittuq Project to people or organizations that contribute to climate change. The Aujaqsuittuq Project is an initiative to document the impact of climate change on the people, culture and environment of the Arctic and is directed by CSI Fellow Malin Jennings.

The removal of strongly interacting species by fishing can fundamentally alter marine food web structure and ecosystem dynamics. Yet various causes are often implicated in the decline of marine species. On the rocky shores of the outer Kenai Peninsula, Alaska, the black chiton, Katharina tunicata, remains an important subsistence shellfish resource for Sugpiaq natives. Known locally as a `Bidarki', this recognized keystone grazer has been traditionally harvested for over 100 years. Yet, curiously, localized declines we first observed 10-15 years ago. Given that this keystone grazer is known to have dramatic impacts on the community structure, dynamics and productivity of temperate rocky intertidal food webs, variation in K. tunicata density would likely cause cascading effects throughout the rest of the biotic community. In collaboration with the Sugpiaq villages of Port Graham and Nanwalek, Alaska, we are examining the potential causes (sea otter predation, variable recruitment, wave force, collection by humans) and consequences of this decline.

At 11 sites falling along a gradient of harvest pressure, we have conducted surveys of K. tunicata predators (sea otters, shore birds and humans), physical factors (wave force and ocean temperature), prey availability and chiton recruitment thereby allowing us to explore multiple factors contributing to recent chiton declines. Interviews with tribal Elders and surveys with village residents were used to document traditional ecological knowledge of the historical trends and present day use of coastal subsistence resources.

The causes of this decline lie buried in history, and scientific research alone is too recent to track the underlying mechanisms of change. However, traditional ecological knowledge has provided key insights regarding the causes of temporal variation. Localized declines can be attributed to changes in both social and biological dynamics. Village elders reported that historical subsistence harvest differed in several ways from today's practices: collection was less spatially concentrated because human communities shifted among seasonal camps, and diets included a wider range of invertebrates, such as crab, sea urchins, sea cucumbers, and clams. These invertebrate resources are now scarce, because sea otters and human fisheries (commercial and subsistence) have increased. In fact, in living memory, these marine invertebrate resources declined serially, with chitons among the most recent to disappear. Sequential prey switching by both humans and sea otters from most accessible preferred prey, to least accessible and less preferred prey, likely resulted in a restriction in prey species breadth thereby leading to intensified exploitation of K. tunicata. Therefore, the recent localized depletion of this keystone grazer and its subsequent ecosystem-level effects may reflect a concentration in the spatial distribution of harvest pressure and the synergistic serial depletion of various nearshore benthic invertebrates.

Small-scale removal experiments, conducted in collaboration with village residents, revealed that the absence of this dominant consumer can cause up to a 5 fold increase in primary production, a 30% increase in species diversity, yet a 50% reduction in limpet production. These manipulations convincingly illustrate the ecological role of K. tunicata and the possible ecosystem-level consequences of its harvest.

Although often neglected in ecological studies, historical data is vital for revealing the `ghosts' of ecosystems past, the `new players' of ecosystems present and the dynamics that link these time frames to the future. Knowing the historical change in Sugpiaq settlement patterns, exploitation practices and predator population dynamics was critical to our current understanding of the factors driving the recent declines of K. tunicata. A unique aspect of this research has been its strong tribal involvement, from the onset of question development, to field data collection, to preliminary analysis and interpretation. Our research showcases the insight ecologists can glean from experimenting with ecosystems, involving local communities and delving into both ecological and social history.

California, with its relatively predictable climate and irrigation facilities, has offered a competitive edge to the agriculture industry. The wine growing areas of France are famous for vintage years, because a good year is exceptional. California's dependable climate could ignore the concept of vintage years until now……… until global warming takes hold!

California produces 90% of all the wine in the U.S. The Californian wine industry is worth an annual US$ 45.4 billion to the state. The wine industry creates more than 200,000 jobs, brings 14.8 million visitors annually to the state, billions of dollars in economic activity, and preserves agricultural land and the family farm.

The Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences predicts California's weather is getting hotter and drier and melting the Sierra Nevada snow packs earlier. Heat waves are occurring seven times more often than in the past. The increase in climate variability will bring a corresponding increase in the risk associated with much of the wine industry. Natural factors make wine from a particular region unique. Known in the wine industry as terroir, these factors include local climate (temperature, rainfall, and sunlight), location of grapevines (altitude and slope), and soil (structure, composition, and water drainage). In general, a grapevine produces the best fruit when the moderate climate provides ample sunshine and cool nights without frost, and the soil is well drained.

Consistent with the reported global trend, annual average temperature in the premium wine producing region of Napa and Sonoma Valleys has increased by 1.130C between 1951 and 1997. Although warmer temperatures are likely to make the cool growing regions of Monterey and Mendocino Counties better producers of some grape varieties over the next few decades, regions that are already warm (such as the Central Valley) are likely to become less hospitable for viticulture. In the Central Valley, where over 40% of California's wine-grapes grow, higher temperatures could impair the quality of wine-grapes as early as 2020. Sonoma Valley includes cool districts in the south, such as the Russian River Valley, where varieties like Pinot Noir flourish, and warm areas in the north, like Alexander Valley, known for its big red wine grapes. A rise in temperature could push Sonoma's microclimates up north, making its southern portion too warm for Pinot Noir and, conceivably, parts of its north too hot for quality wine production.

Climate regulates nearly every step of wine production, from selection of a suitable grape variety to the type and quality of the wines produced. For wine grapes, excessively high temperatures during ripening can adversely affect quality, which is a major determinant of the market value. Before the end of the century, rising temperatures during the growing season could cause grapes to ripen as much as one to two months earlier. A grapevine changes its metabolism, especially the rate of photosynthesis, to accommodate temperature shifts. In fact, when leaf and berry temperatures exceed 95 degrees most photosynthetic reactions slow or stop to minimize water stress. The characteristics of the grapes at the end of the season reflect every little variation in the vine's environment during the growing season. Everything that happens to the vine's metabolism affects the fruit and is ultimately reflected in the wine-which is why climate is the most dynamic variable in the nature of a given vineyard environment.

The IUCN has listed three fruit bat species in the western Indian Ocean as critically endangered. The bats, which live on small, forested islands, have dwindled in numbers as a result of habitat loss and over hunting. Inhabitants of the islands in which these species live cut trees for timber and fuel, and clear land for subsistence farming. This clearing leaves bats without adequate habitat and vulnerable to tropical storms.

Surveys in the early 1990's indicated that the bats had declined significantly, with only small populations remaining. This prompted the IUCN listings and the development of a conservation plan. Unlike many conservation plans, which primarily focus on scientific study and the implementation of particular courses of action by an agency or scientific team, this plan emphasized the development of an environmental education program (EEP).

The goals of the EEP included raising awareness about the threats to the species, fostering pride for the endemic species, training educators, and promoting local involvement in conservation efforts. Three separate EEP's were developed on islands that harbor populations of the fruit bats. Independently developed, with site-specific strategies, the EEP's utilized collaborative evaluation to assess efficacy.

The EEP's identified target audiences, which included villagers living near roosting sites, students, educators and government staff. In an effort to raise awareness these programs distributed posters and stickers, developed plays and skits to entertain people, handed out t-shirts, leaflets, and locally produced videos, and created bat posters. They developed lesson plans in schools, trained educators, held community meetings, and put on free workshops. All of these activities brought the issues of the bats to the community and created a link between human activities and the decline of the species.

In addition to the outreach and education, the programs actively recruited and trained community members to monitor roost sites and do survey of the species. This local involvement in research of the species created more public sympathy for the plight of the bats. Non-charismatic species rarely engender widespread public support but this case study shows that it can happen.

Although these EEP's have had little effect on averting habitat loss, the programs have had significant impacts. Community members now have an understanding of the issues concerning the viability of the bats, have gained knowledge of their biological and ecological needs, and have an appreciation for their existence. This knowledge and understanding has provided an opportunity for facilitating conservation measures that may ultimately help sustain and rebuild populations.

Certainly these programs will not replace scientific study or other conservation strategies aimed at recovering the fruit bats. However, long-term conservation success is more likely as a result of these efforts. Education may prove more successful in long-term conservation than scientific work by changing peoples attitudes, and more importantly, their behaviors. These bats still face a grim future, but the EEP's in these communities have provided a chance for conservation success that would not have developed otherwise.

Scientists and conservationists have responded to the global extinction crisis of plants and animals by implementing large-scale conservation efforts. Although effective in many ways, by focusing on large areas and long-term recovery, these efforts often overlook important fine scale conservation opportunities that could stem extinctions by protecting essential habitat at a more localized level.

A group of researchers that include individuals from academia, the scientific community, and the non-profit sector, have published a paper in the December 2000 issue of BioScience proposing a framework that focuses on fine scale conservation, as opposed to large-scale efforts like eco-regions, as an effective and necessary means of protecting global biodiversity. Key biodiversity areas (KBA) are globally significant sites of a size and level of interconnectedness which can support viable populations of species dependent upon them. They represent a concept and methodology of identifying species conservation targets and using a standardized threshold based criteria to select those sites most important for meeting specified conservation goals.

The notion of KBA builds on a similar conservation program that has proven highly successful. Important bird areas (IBA), developed by BirdLife International in the early 1980's, represent a proven conservation methodology that can be replicated and applied broadly. KBA could help identify global priorities of site-scale conservation by identifying those species that face likely extinction in the short term and the habitat they most depend upon.

To avoid subjectivity in the application of KBA, the authors suggest applying repeatable criteria for their selection. KBA thresholds will allow for repeatability among practitioners worldwide. Species triggering KBA should exhibit global significance and have a viable population. The authors have identified four criteria, with accompanying threshold levels, to use in identifying KBA.

The first criterion addresses the global vulnerability of a species. The IUCN red list, which utilizes a quantitative standard of identifying threatened species, provides site-specific information. It includes those areas where globally threatened species occur regularly in significant numbers, as well as areas used seasonally or episodically. Such areas include breeding sites or temporary wetlands among others. The second criterion identifies highly irreplaceable sites. This includes those sites that harbor species with restricted ranges. Defining restricted ranges requires definable parameters, which have been identified for birds and have subsequently been applied to other taxa. The authors propose identifying an area as a KBA if it harbors 5% of the population of a globally threatened restricted range species.

The third criterion addresses those sites that exhibit congregatory species. Applicable to mobile species only, this criterion identifies those sites that regularly harbor a significant population of a particular congregatory species. This includes areas where large numbers of individuals in a particular species come together for a particular amount of time, such as breeding, roosting or foraging grounds.

The final criterion identifies those species restricted to a particular biome or portion of a biome. This criterion poses a number of problems for replication. The very definition of biome usually hinges on subjective rather than quantitative measures, which leads to arbitrary boundaries. This then poses problems for assessing the viability of populations or species based on changing boundaries. The authors note the preliminary nature of this criterion and the need for further testing to determine its practicality and value.

The use of these criteria provide an objective framework for establishing site conservation targets. It allows for the identification of KBA boundaries that will allow for manageable site conservation. The authors base their criteria for selecting KBA on biological factors, but also stress the importance of considering socioeconomic factors in order to ensure the protection of biodiversity. Although a first step in the process, the authors hope that KBA will help create a global conservation currency that in conjunction with the implementation of specific site conservation measures will help stem global biodiversity loss.